Epictetus was a Stoic philosopher who lived between the years 50 – 135 CE. Along with Marcus Aurelius and Seneca, Epictetus is among the most influential Stoics in history.
Today we’ll discuss Epictetus’s origins, philosophy and some key takeaways.
For a primer on Stoicism, you may want to know more about Stoicism in a Nutshell and Modern Stoicism.
What is Epictetus known for?
The most surprising fact about Epictetus is that he was born a slave. In fact, Epictetus literally means “the acquired”.
Born in Hierapolis, Phrygia (modern-day Turkey), Epictetus spent his youth in Rome tending to a wealthy freedman. Clearly smart and gifted, his owner allowed him to pursue liberal studies on the side of his slave duties. His intellectual pursuit led him to the Stoic school of philosophy, which he studied under the great orator Musonius Rufus.
Epictetus built on the Stoic doctrine and added his own unique perspective as a slave. Epictetus would eventually gain his freedom soon after Emperor Nero’s reign ended when he was about 20 years old. The fact that such an influential person started as a slave and gained his freedom shows the true potential of following Stoic principles.
In his time, Epictetus became one of the most prominent Stoics of the Roman Empire. He inspired the likes of Marcus Aurelius and countless others. Today, Epictetus is best-known for his works: Enchiridion (the handbook) and his Discourses.
What did Epictetus teach?
While the original Greek Stoics built the philosophy on three pillars (Logic, Physics & Ethics), Epictetus and the other Roman Stoics centred their philosophy primarily around ethics.
Epictetus was largely concerned with attaining tranquility of mind and developed a framework in his philosophy, which we’ll review in the next section.
Epictetus’s teaching was so influential and well-regarded that Hadrian is believed to have visited the school during his time as Emperor.
As far as we know, Epictetus did not write down any of his philosophy. Instead, one of his pupils wrote Enchiridion and his Discourses by compiling lessons from Epictetus’s lectures. This might explain the conversational tone his books have.
What was Epictetus’s philosophy?
Epictetus’s philosophy centred around how people can live their best possible life. He claimed that humans have complete freedom to live the life they desire, though this might be limited by their ability to use logic and reason.
How can people be good and excellent?
Epictetus divides his philosophy into three sections: desire, choice and assent. He claims that a person who wishes to be good should apply these three fields into their life. These sections can be summarised as the following:
The first has to do with desires and aversions, that they may never fail to get what they desire, nor fall into what they avoid; the second with cases of choice and of refusal, and, in general, with duty, that they may act in an orderly fashion, upon good reasons, and not carelessly; the third with the avoidance of error and rashness in judgment, and, in general, about cases of assent.
Epictetus said we can have a happy life by ensuring we are motivated by living with virtue.
We can live our best life by setting our own standards of excellence and acting on them. Comparing ourselves to others is not a meaningful measure. We should instead aim to embody our own definition of excellence.
Focus on what we can control
Epictetus’s Enchiridion starts with the phrase:
Some things are in our control, others not.
With this simple phrase, Epictetus created the framework we today call the dichotomy of control. We should always focus on what we can control. So what’s in our control?
Things in our control are opinion, pursuit, desire, aversion, and, in a word, whatever are our own actions. Things not in our control are body, property, reputation, command, and, in one word, whatever are not our own actions.
Too much energy is wasted on things over which we have no control. Instead, we must accept the fate of things outside our control and learn to accept them with equanimity. This is the idea of amor fati, love your fate.
It is the things that we can control where we should focus our energy, because these things will have the greatest impact on our lives. This idea is the foundation of our Stoic To-Do list, the mental framework that helped me start this website.
Differentiating Impressions from Reality
Another core part of Epictetus’s philosophy involved our ability to differentiate our impressions from reality, a Stoic concept known as Katalepsis. Epictetus offered his advice on identifying inaccurate interpretations by recommending we say to ourselves:
Impression, wait for me a little. Let me see what you are and what you represent. Let me try you.
To prove his point, Epictetus uses the example of death, which many would consider bad and scary.
Men are disturbed not by the things which happen, but by the opinions about the things: for example, death is nothing terrible, for if it were it would have seemed so to Socrates; for the opinion about death, that it is terrible, is the terrible thing.
In fact, applying the dichotomy of control, we understand that only things within our control can be good or bad. Therefore our own actions and conscious thoughts can be good, so much as they align with our own virtues.
Anything else – the past, the future, other people’s opinions and actions, the weather, whatever – must be indifferent. We should therefore accept such things as predetermined and unchangeable. This is the Stoic conception of fate.
How Can We Be Free According to Epictetus?
Enchiridion tells us that everything we do for our own reasons is naturally free, unimpeded and unconstrained. In this sense, freedom is a mental construction.
Free people, by his definition, are immune to frustration and disappointment because they’re in control of their wants and decisions. By focusing on what they can control, their desires and actions don’t involve anything they can’t give themselves.
This definition flips the conventional idea of freedom on its head. Epictetus claimed that a slave could be free, while the rich might be slaves to their possessions.
Again, applying Stoic principles to his life proved beneficial in 89 CE when philosophers were banished from Rome by Emperor Domitian. Rather than complain or feel misplaced, Epictetus moved to Nicopolis in Northwestern Greece and started his new Stoic school. Epictetus spent the rest of his life teaching in Nicopolis, even after the philosopher ban was lifted from Rome.
Approach Life with Metaphors
Epictetus constructed several metaphors to demonstrate how a Stoic might approach life. Some of the most notable metaphors include seeing life as a festival, a game, a play and a contest.
Life as a Festival
The first metaphor treats life as a festival. We should be able to put up with any hardships if our perspective is of the larger event. And why should we not treat life as a festival? After all, Epictetus believed, a divine entity gave us life for our enjoyment.
Who are you, and for what purpose have you come? Was it not he [God] who brought you here? … And as what did he bring you here? Was it not as a mortal? Was it not as one who would live, with a little portion of flesh, upon this earth, and behold his governance and take part with him, for a short time, in his pageant and his festival?
With this metaphor, we’re encouraged to live joyously. By living well and fulfilling our duties, we contribute to the festival as responsible citizens.
Life as a Game
Epictetus also encourages us to treat life as a game. We can use this metaphor to distance ourselves from our negative emotions and impressions. Life is a game. So long as we have it, we should focus on the positive side.
To summarise: remember that the door is open. Do not be more cowardly than children, but just as they say, when the game no longer pleases them, ‘I will play no more,’ you too, when things seem that way to you, should merely say, ‘I will play no more,’ and so depart; but if you stay, stop moaning.
Life as a Play
Epictetus also taught that we should approach life as a play. We should never compare ourselves to other people. We have different roles in our lives, and our focus should be on “playing our part” to the best of our ability.
Remember that you are an actor in a play, which is as the author [God] wants it to be: short, if he wants it to be short; long, if he wants it to be long. If he wants you to act a poor man, a cripple, a public official, or a private person, see that you act it with skill. For it is your job to act well the part that is assigned to you; but to choose it is another’s.
Life as an Athletic Contest
Epictetus also encourages budding Stoics to consider their lives as a contest. In the same way that athletes prepare for contests with practice, Stoics should learn and practice philosophy. The Stoic contest involves applying theory to their lives to the best of one’s ability.
For is not reading a kind of preparation for living, but living itself made up of things other than books? It is as if an athlete, when he enters the stadium, should break down and weep because he is not exercising outside. This is what you were exercising for; this is what the jumping-weights, and the sand and your young partners were all for.
What is Stoicism According to Epictetus?
Epictetus taught Stoicism for decades in both Rome and Greece. He studied the original Stoic doctrine, learned from his mentor Musonius Rufus and developed his own approach to the philosophy.
Focusing on ethics and living a good and excellent life, Epictetus aimed to teach others to find happiness and tranquility.
If we boil down Epictetus’s Stoic philosophy, we get three key insights to apply to our daily life.
- Focus on what you can control
- Set your own Standards & Act on Them
- Approach life as a festival, a game, a play and a contest
While his philosophy was simple enough for anyone to understand, Epictetus got to the core of the Stoic doctrine. He identified how we can achieve a good and excellent life by following a simple framework.
Epictetus’s Contribution to Philosophy
Why is Epictetus Important?
Epictetus was important because he lived the life he preached. Born a slave, he focused on what he could control. Rather than complaining about his position as a slave, he focused on his studies and eventually earned his freedom.
The fact that he defines freedom as a mental state is important. No person can take this type of freedom from us. All it requires is a healthy mindset.
This healthy mindset contributes to mental clarity and productivity.
Who did Epictetus Influence?
As mentioned, Epictetus was one of the most influential philosophers of his time. Even the emperor of his time was believed to have visited at least one of his lessons. Epictetus also became a key influences for the Philosopher King, Marcus Aurelius.
Despite never actually writing anything down, his works have survived the test of time, because one of his students found the value in sharing his work as literature. In this way, Epictetus made its way to the middle ages to influence the philosophers from Europe in the 16th century onward.
Epictetus was a clear influence for modern philosophers such as Søren Kierkegaard and schools of psychology such as Modern CBT. We still study Epictetus today and might even consider him a “gateway Stoic” for his simple approach to Stoicism.
Epictetus Where to Start & What to Read?
If you’re interested in learning more about Epictetus, I’d recommend jumping right into his Discourses and Enchiridion. Whether you prefer reading or listening to audiobooks, his books are fortunately in the public domain so they’re completely free to enjoy!
Epictetus’s Discourses
Discourses Audiobook
Epictetus’s Enchiridion (Handbook)
Epictetus in a Nutshell
Epictetus was one of the most influential philosophers of his time. Today, we know him as one of the most influential Stoics of all time. He simplified the Stoic doctrine, emphasising tranquility and living virtuously. Ultimately, Epictetus made it easy for anyone to understand the philosophy.
Epictetus’s core philosophy came down to a few simple premises. Firstly, we all have the power to achieve the life we want and to be free regardless of our circumstances. Next, by focusing on what we can control, we shift our time and energy toward the things that have the greatest impact on our lives.
Freedom is a mental state that can enslave the wealthy and free slaves. Epictetus was himself a prime example of this principle.
Epictetus had a lasting impact on philosophy and psychology for his Discourses and Enchiridion and his simple approach to Stoicism.
Live a life of tranquility and virtue today with Epictetus and Mind & Practice.